Methods of Encoding - Extension

"Miss Hawks. We talked about you over the weekend," said my excited 8th grader. 

This makes me nervous. Who knows if things I say get reported accurately at home. 
"I dropped an ice cube. My brother kicked it, and it went across the floor like really far." 
So, far, I'm not seeing where I come in.
"We were like, yeah, Newton's first law. Ice doesn't have much friction, so it keeps going."
My work here is done, y'all.

If you pull an all-nighter to study for biology, you may get some questions right on the next day's quiz; but you won't remember it for the semester exam.  Heck, you won't remember it three days later.  And that's because it wasn't encoded.  

For the past few weeks, I've been writing about explanations, visuals, and movement as ways of encoding information.  All are helpful. But if you can get to extension or transfer (seeing your learning in non-classroom contexts), you have truly made that content part of your brain.  

This is not easy, and it is not likely to happen with every gem of your content that you wish it would.  But there are ways to coax it out.  

1. Pay attention for examples in your own life - It is much easier to get students to see the relevance of your content if you do.  If I teach my students about the color spectrum, it may come off as a little dry, but if I tell them about the rainbow laden spray of water coming off of the tires of the car in front of me in traffic last week, I show them that I find it exciting to see it "in the wild." If I tell them I just learned about fogbows from a Scientific American article, they know that there are always new things to learn about my content. If you are an English teacher and notice a really cool use of alliteration in a song, bring it up on YouTube so they can hear it.  I was getting ice cream with a friend recently and saw an art sculpture of a Sierpinski Triangle outside the shop. If were a math teacher teaching shapes, ratios, or fractals, I would have brought the picture I took of it into my classroom. 
   
   
   
2. Ask them for examples from their life - I'll admit this is easier with physics than it might be with similes (or maybe it's not, I don't know anything about teaching English), but I find having students teach me about the ways physics shows up in their lives really useful for engagement, relationship building, and encoding. Student athletes and artists are super helpful for science teachers. Half way through a lesson on Bernoulli's Principle, I say, "Where are my baseball players?  Tell us about how to throw a curve ball."  Newton's laws?  Swimmers can explain their strokes better than I can.  When I'm teaching the impulse momentum theorem, I ask my gymnasts about sticking the landing and then ask runners why they keep running after the finish line because they are both examples of it. Talking about the "like dissolves like" concept, ask an art student whether they can mix oil paint with acrylic. 
3. Make it explicit - As experts, we often think the connections are obvious. It's the curse of expertise. But, you have to remember that they are novice learners. They need help seeing beyond the surface features of an example to the deep structure of the concept. Some students (like those athletes and artists) will make the connection for themselves because they have expertise in the related area, but most of them need you to explain it. I've had teachers balk at that because they think it will be boring, but it would only be boring to another expert who is thinking, "Yeah, I know that already." For novice learners, it is opening up the curriculum  by relating it to something they care about.

I said it before, and I'll say it again. This is not easy. It requires you to have a repertoire of examples. And it takes a lot of experience to have those in your long term memory.  So, when you find one, write it down. Keep it in a spreadsheet. Add it to your lesson plan. And if a student gives you one, use it and credit them. Other students will love that you got it from one of them. 

This is worth the effort for many reasons, but I'll tell you my favorite.  I do this so frequently that it has been years since a student asked me the dreaded question, "When am I ever going to use this in life?" 

Methods of Encoding - Movement

In a college biology class, I was learning about the difference between mitosis and meiosis. If you have learned this concept yourself, you know it can be very confusing to keep the movement of the chromatids straight at each phase of the process.  As I wrote last year, images are helpful, but because it is dynamic process, they were not helping me see how things moved from on phase to another. The professor knew this, so he had us all stand up. We began in a clump at the center of the room (cell). As we moved into prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase, he had us move toward partners and away from other groups until we finally had split into two classes (daughter cells). He was taking advantage of movement for encoding.

Was it because we were a room full of kinesthetic learners?  Nope.  At the time, because I didn't know learning styles were a myth, I would have called myself an auditory learner, but experiencing the motion of each phase did help me encode each one better than words alone (or even words with images) would have. I would like to point out, though, that the movement alone wouldn't have been helpful without explicit explanation coming first.  The movement helped cement the learning, but it did not teach mitosis to me.

Gesture has become all the rage, but there is still much research to be done on its effectiveness.  As with a lot of things in science, the results of experiment are very specific to content and context.  So, the conclusion seems to be that some types of gesture help some kids learn some content. Given that there is zero cost to implementing it and it will help a bit with engagement, I say it is worth trying.  It can be as complex as the "dance steps" we did for mitosis.  It can also be as simple as having students hold up a circle with their hands to indicate a zero.

Content which involves relationships in three dimensional space benefit from use of moving the body to represent those relationships.  Mitosis is one example, but as a physics student, I was taught the "right hand rules" to help with analyzing the relationship between electrical current, magnetic fields, and force.  Each pair of those has a perpendicular effect on the third one.  Unless you are already quite familiar with this topic, that explanation was probably confusing.  It will help if you see this picture, but nothing helps as much as students twisting their hands to the orientation of the set up described in the problem.  One only needs to walk into the test on this chapter and see students silently doing that exact thing to know how much it helps.

Since the research is fairly new, there are a wide variety of hypotheses about why it works and no solid conclusions.  Some have posed that it provides an offload to working memory.  If I can hold the number 3 that I'm going to need in a second in my hand, I don't have to hold it in my brain.  I've done this without meaning to while teaching cycle classes.  If I know we are going to increase tension 6 times, I'll have four fingers resting on the handlebar, so I can tell my class, "This one is number 5 of 6."  If an anatomy student is pointing at her own femur while rehearsing proximal and distal attachments, she won't have to look back at a diagram to remember which part she is dealing with.  The gesture might serve as a physical mnemonic device, reminding you of the thing it symbolizes. Like I said, the research is too new to have drawn any meaningful conclusion about the mechanisms just yet.

We all know the power of muscle memory for physical activities, like dance and sports.  Muscles are meat, so they don't actually remember, but a well myelinated pathway from repeated practice is how we make learning permanent. 

If you want to implement this is your classrooms, start slowly.  There is no need to insist that every piece of content have a motion or gesture, and the research doesn't support that anyway.  I would suggest the use of movements and gestures will only be really helpful if they are natural.  If you have to think hard to come up with a gesture and force it to fit, it will likely not be beneficial.  

Methods of Encoding - Pairing Visuals

A popular applause line at education conferences is "Nothing has changed in education for 200 years!"  It gets everybody fired up for the "new" thing that the speaker wants to promote, but it simply is not true.  I taught for 25 years and was, of course, a student for 17 years before that.  And just in that relatively short time, education has changed dramatically.  The fact that we sit in rows at desks notwithstanding, my grandparents wouldn't recognize most of what happens in classrooms today.  Have you ever picked up a textbook from a hundred years ago?  It is only a few millimeters thick, has tiny font, no pictures, and little spacing - printing was way too expensive to waste precious space.

Tech has brought about a million flashy changes.  Kids can make videos of their own, but the most profoundly effective change was probably the simplest - pairing visual images with explanations.

I know you were expecting something more fun, and I'm certainly not going to be able to sell this to people at conferences.

But it really is this simple.  

Is the impact because we are addressing the learning styles of visual learners?  

No.  That isn't a thing.  You aren't a visual learner.  Stop saying it.  Your child is not a visual learner.  Just stop.  Stop it now.

The reason pairing visuals with explanations is so powerful for encoding information is because we ALL essentially have two pathways in the brain for processing information. Verbal and images.  

Verbal information can be spoken or written - it doesn't matter because they are both words, and words are processed by the verbal pathway.  Images are, of course, pictures. Or animated video. Or even pictures we imagine in our minds.  When these two processing centers are used in conjunction, they compliment each other, and encoding is more powerful.  It's called Dual Coding, and it helps EVERY student (and is, I believe, one of the reasons the learning styles myth just won't die - people don't understand the difference).

But just as I said last week that not all explanations are created equal, the same is true of how we pair our images and explanations.  I'm not talking about clip art, here. I fell for this for a while, so I want to be clear that some images serve as nothing more than a distraction.  If I am teaching physics students to solve kinematics problems (the relationship between acceleration, distance, and time) and include a picture of a race car just for the sake of having a picture, that is NOT dual coding.  If I put in a gif of a race car going past over and over again because I think kids like gifs, that is NOT dual coding.  Those images are impeding learning, not enhancing it.

An image that helps your explanation is one in which the image provides detail, context, or anchors that words alone cannot.  A photograph of a flower in a science book is unlikely to help (unless it is just to show types of a certain varietal), but a labeled diagram of a flower with lines pointing to the structures being named can enhance a paragraph in which those structures are explained.  

The less eye movement required to take in the information, the better.  An image with direct labels is better than one with letters corresponding to words elsewhere on the page.  In very detailed pictures (like anatomical drawings), this may not be possible, but put it as close to the image as possible.  Ideally, the words and image can be processed simultaneously without splitting your attention.

What's nice about understanding the difference between the truth of dual coding and the myth of learning styles is that you don't have to pressure yourself into making three different lesson plans for the same subject.  You can design one high quality lesson with modalities that fit the content, and ALL students will benefit.

Methods of Encoding - Explanations

Despite all of the fads encouraging "guide on the side rather than sage on the stage," the most common form of instruction remains good, old fashioned explanations.  

Why?  

Because the most effective, efficient, and straightforward way of getting information from the head of someone knowledge to the head of someone without it is to tell them.  We know it works from research, but even if we didn't, we would know it works from the thousands of years of history in which oral tradition was the only option available (perhaps paired with a drawing on a cave wall, but we'll talk about that next week).

So, most of the encoding that happens in schools is done through explanation.  That means, we should invest a lot of our professional development time on getting explanations right.  Anyone who has ever helped their dad with a home repair, only to misunderstand and mess up the project, knows that explanations aren't all created equal. 

Good explanations engage listeners through hooks, brisk pacing, frequent checks for understanding, analogies, and clear sequencing.  

Hooks:

Think of the best sermon, stand up comedy routine, or TED talk you have ever heard.  Chances are, you remember how it started more than any other part of it.  And that's likely because excellent speakers start with something to get your attention.  Sometimes, it's a quote or especially interesting fact, but more often than not, it's a story.  Better yet, it is the first half of a story that they will finish later in the speech.  People who want you to keep listening are wise to pique your curiosity and make you want to know more.  Teachers, pay attention to the world around you, and you will see myriads of opportunities to connect something you have seen to your content.  "Last week, I saw a bird fly into a window, and it made me wonder, 'What makes glass transparent?'" will draw students in far more than, "Today, we will talk about what make glass transparent."  An English teacher can tell a story about an argument they overheard as the lead in to a discussion on literary conflict.  Even in math, there is a way to turn a variable into a character.  Check out this TED talk from Tyler DeWitt on using story telling in his science classes to help his kids care about what they are learning.  The point, if you don't grab their attention early, you don't stand a chance of keeping them engaged when the lesson gets harder.

Brisk Pacing:

I confess that I had not thought much about pacing (other than my own need to fit the whole lesson into a class period) before reading Zach Groshell's book Just Tell Them.  In his role as instructional coach and consultant, Zach has observed hundreds of lessons and says that one of the things he has noticed most is pacing that is too slow.  He's not advising that teachers speak at lightning speed and blow past checks for understanding (far from it if you have ever seen him present).  He is simply advising that we not dwell forever on one point if it isn't needed and eliminate things that aren't necessary for learning.  I'll add that a lot of classroom management issues could be pre-empted with faster pacing as well and free up time for retrieval practice at the end of the period.

Checks for Understanding:

No matter how good an explainer you are, there will be misconceptions in the minds of your students.  They miss an important word that changes the meaning of a sentence.  They activate some partially relevant piece of prior knowledge and make an inappropriate connection to it.  Their lack of background knowledge or vocabulary makes them have only a partial understanding.  There are lots of ways misconceptions can sneak in to your excellent lesson.  And misconceptions are like weeds; they grow out of control alongside the good information.  And, they are easier to uproot if you catch them early.  For that reason, your explanations should include frequent checks for understanding from as many of your students as possible.  Don't just call on the kid with his hand up.  He only raised his hand because he was confident, so he's almost always going to be right; and that is almost always going to mislead you into believing that everyone understands.  You can whiteboards, paper, choral response, cold calling, or digital tools, but you must ask them to answer questions that show their thinking.

Analogies, Metaphors, and Similes:

The best way to understand something is to connect it something else that you already understand.  Using analogies in your explanations help content to stick.  Chemistry teachers, make the reactants and products of a chemical reaction people at homecoming trying to find the right dance partners.  

Algebra teachers - "Think of the variable like a loner.  He just wants to be by himself.  He's trying to get everyone to go away by doing the opposite of what they want to do."  Kids understand that a lot more than "To isolate a variable, employ the opposite operation of those terms already connected to the variable."

You do have to be careful with analogies.  Because they are so powerful, they are sometimes the part of your explanation that sticks the best.  I used to describe dissociation (the process of ionic compounds dissolving in water) with the analogy, "It's like a married couple going to a party.  They wife goes one direction and the husband goes another to mingle during the party.  But, they aren't divorced (to make the point that chemical decomposition has not happened) because they come back together at the end of the party.  One the next test they had, several students gave me a detailed answer to the question, "Describe the process of dissociation" without ever mentioning ions or polar molecules.  They told me a lot about mingling at parties.  That was a good reminder for me to constantly circle back to the content to prevent only encoding the analogy.  

Sequencing:

Perhaps the most under-appreciated part of explanations is the sequencing of information.  I think that is because most of us plan it rather unconsciously.  But it is worth taking a few minutes to think about as you plan your lessons.  Will "A" make sense if I teach it before I teach "B"?  If not, re-sequence.  

There are time when this is difficult, especially as students get older and the content becomes more complex and self referencing.  I often found myself saying, "But we'll talk more about that next semester."  The key then is to explain what they NEEED to know in order to understand what you are teaching them today.  It's okay to say, "There will be more on this later" without trying to teach all of the coming concept.  In fact, I found that my especially curious students were excited to know that things would connect up later.  I also really liked making that explicit when we got there.  "Hey, remember that thing from two weeks ago?  See how it all comes together now?  Isn't it cool how everything depends on everything else?"  Once a student made the connection for me.  I was teaching Net Ionic Equations, and a student said,"Man, this one thing has stuff from like four different chapters."  I had not recognized that yet, but he was right.  If I had tried to teach those too early in the year, it would have been an absolute mess. 

Explanations may be the most straightforward way to teach, but it takes time to plan effectively.  I recommend two books to help with this process.  The first one is one I already mentioned - Zach Groshell's Just Tell Them.  Zach practices what he preaches, so it is a short book that is practical, to the point, and leaves out the fluff.  

If you have a little more time and you want to deep dive into the science behind explanations, I recommend How to Explain Absolutely Anything to Absolutely Anyone by Andy Tharby.  It is a little more dense than Zach's, but it is chock full of great connections to cognitives science research.  Together, these two books will up your explanation game in a huge ways.

Practicing What You Have Not Learned?

I discovered a delightful show on YouTube during lockdown.  I say "discovered;" it had already been on for fourteen years before I found it.  It's called Would I Lie to You?, and I'm honestly not sure I would have gotten through the hybrid year without it. I'd come home at the end of the day a puddle of exhaustion and eat dinner watching Colbert, after which I would watch a couple of episodes of WILTY and laugh until I cried.

Last week, a more recent episode featured a story in which one of the participants claimed to have made a sculpture of a girl he liked (like the girl in the Lionel Richie "Hello" video).  Spoiler alert in case you plan to watch the show:  This story turned out not to be true.  But, as he was selling his tale, one of the questions that was asked was, "Do you have experience with sculpting."  His answer was, "No, but I figured you learn by practice."

This could just be the education nerd in me or a reflection of the age of the young man telling the story, but all I could think was, "Well, there's someone who has been exposed to too much "discovery learning."  Here he was thinking that the highly specialized skill of representative sculpture (not an abstract, but the face of a girl he was trying to impress) was something he could figure out on his own by trial and error.  It's a good thing this story wasn't true because I don't think he would have won the affections of this girl with a "learn by practice" sculpture.

I think the reason this stuck with me was the word "practice."  There are two parts to learning.  Encoding and practice.  

Whether knowledge or skill, encoding must come first.  I'm not saying it has to be learned from a professional teacher, but no one is truly self-taught.  They get their initial knowledge or skill from somewhere.  Whether it is from reading, direct instruction, modeling, or TikTok video - something must first be input and encoded.  Practice, by definition, is the repetition of something already learned.  Practice is important as it myelinates the nerve cells and solidifies the skill or knowledge, but it cannot come first.

As the great Tom Sherrington put it in one of his recent blog posts, "You need to make some initial pathways in your brain (some actual physical connections) before we can worry about strengthening them through application and practice."

We have underemphasized this in recent years with the talk of retrieval practice at every conference.  I'm downplaying retrieval.  We must have both to make learning stay in long term memory.  But let's talk more about good methods of encoding.

I'm going to attempt to do my part by making the next few posts about methods of encoding.  So stay tuned this summer.

The Dignity of All Work

I once had a principal who liked to tell what he believed to be an inspiring story.  His junior high school was right across from a textile mill.  Once, when he was not performing up to expectations, his teacher made him look out the window at the mill and said, "If you don't get good grades, you'll have to spend your life working at the mill." He then, apparently, put his all into his studies so he wouldn't have to livet hat life.  Every time he told this story, I cringed (and not just because my grandmother and brother both worked in textiles) because he was taking dignity from one kind of work in order to inspire another kind.  I didn't have the kind of relationship with him where I could go to him and say, "You should be glad there are people who don't think their above working in textile mills or you would be naked right now," but I always wanted to.

Across the country, the school year is winding down.  Students are graduating from high school, and they are taking a wide variety of paths.  Some students are excitedly celebrating their acceptances to four year universities and already have plans for post-graduate degrees.  Others are nervously waitlisted or accepted on a deferred basis.  Some are going to community college while they take general ed classes and figure out what they want to major in.  Some will get vocational training in a technical school.  Some will begin entry level jobs and work their way up.  Some will wait tables. Some will design the next big video game. 

And some will work in textile mills.

Every kid's path is different.

Let me put it another way for those who need to hear it differently.

Every path is valid; yours is not superior.

The society in which we live is inanely interdependent, and we need people to do all of the jobs.  If your garbage isn't picked up one week, that's inconvenient, but if it isn't picked up for two month, that's horrifying.  Be grateful for your trash collector.  You have a coffee addiction?  It's a good thing there are people who don't see service jobs in coffee shops as something to be sneered at, or you would have to figure out how to do it for yourself.  When you need your air conditioning repaired on a 95 degree day, your son't degree in accounting or contract law won't do you much good, so you are going to shell out good money to someone with skills you don't have.

Let's not forget that college for most is a relatively new thing.  Just one hundred years ago, going to college after high school was the exception, not the rule.  Neither of the Wright brothers graduated high school.  Frederick Douglas wasn't allowed an education.  Yet, those people managed to have great influence through their work. Some of our founding fathers attended college, but not all of them did. Going back farther, Jesus was a carpenter, and Adam and Eve were farmers.  

Let me be clear.  I am not against against people pursuing degrees.  I did.  If what you want to do requires a degree or two or five, I'm all for it. I hope your school prepared you well for that choice.  After all, I don't want a doctor or lawyer or engineer who is "self taught."  I'm saying that it is not the right choice for everyone.

We need all jobs. Not everyone needs to go into debt to get one.

It's an unappreciated truth that some paths are not linear.  You may do one thing for a few years and then make a different choice.  It's always been the case that few people do the thing they majored in for their entire career, and that is becoming increasingly rare in recent years.  Sometimes, interests change.  Other times, market forces and government whims force change.  Injuries, the birth of kids, divorce, aging parents who need care, and a million other things can spark big change.  The idea that a high school senior has their whole life planned out when they graduate is fiction.  When I was in college, I worked as a janitor in an arena and in child care. I was a teacher for 25 years, but between two schools, I worked at a mortgage company.  Now, I work at the YMCA.  All of these jobs helped shape who I am, and the lessons I learned in each of those jobs were carried with me into the next one, making me a better employee and more interesting person.

In 2018, pictures of Geoffrey Owens, who had played Eldin on the Cosby Show, went viral.  Why?  He was bagging groceries at Trader Joe's.  Acting isn't always consistent income, sometimes including long time periods between gigs; so he was making ends meet by working at the grocery chain.  The same people who criticize so called "Hollywood elites" for being out of touch went online and mocked him for doing work they considered beneath themselves.  He praised Trader Joe's as a great place to work and said, "I'm not ashamed of working at the grocery store. No job is better than any other.  Every job is worthwhile and valuable."

What is important is that you do something that is honest, fulfilling for you, and contributes to society in some way. You are meant to honor God with whatever He has put in front of you to do each day, whether that is brain surgery or car repair. Whatever God has given you to do, use it to glorify him and serve others.  The reformer Martin Luther is credited as saying, "A dairy maid can milk cows to the glory of God."  He said that she is "glorifying God just as much as a preacher in a pulpit preaching a sermon."  Civil rights activist Martin Luther King, Jr. described all work as significant, saying, "All labor that uplifts humanity has dignity and importance and should be undertaken with painstaking excellence."

After communion each week, my congregation prays the same prayer.  It says, in part, "And now, send us out to do the work you have given us to do."  If we do that, our work has value, dignity, and importance, no matter what it is.

Congratulations to the class of 2025.  Whatever you have chosen to do next, and wherever your path may lead you, do it well.  Use it to glorify God, and serve others.

Tribute to MY class of 2025

"In life, you don't have to have all the right answers if you are asking the right questions." 
- Salutatorian Katherine McKinley May 23, 2025

The class of 2025 is here, in their regalia, ready to head out into the world.  I know some schools still have a few weeks left, but Memorial Day weekend marks the beginning of graduation season.  While they look forward, I can't help but look back.  As an 8th grade science teacher, I taught 54 of this year's graduating seniors during the hybrid year.  There is a bond that can only be created by that kind of stress.  Some were at home while others were in the room with me, although we were standing as far apart as a classroom space would allow, we were in it together. Masked and separated by plexiglass, but with a common goal and a common spirit. They had been home since March, so they were excited to see each other again and a little more nervous about what the year might look like than normal.  But my biggest memory of them was how game they were.  Because we were doing EVERYTHING in new ways, the most common words I said in the first month of the 2020-2021 school year were, "We're going to try it this way.  If it works, we'll keep doing it. If not, we'll try something else."  And they rolled with it, adapting like champs.  At the end of the year, just before they walked out the door, I said, "This year has been hard, but I want to thank you for not using the power you have to make it harder.  You guys made it fun."

While all 54 of the ones I taught are special, there are a few that stand out in my memory for different reasons that year, and I want to mention a few.

Collin - Collin is a hard worker, but he is also a goofball - a teacher's favorite combination.  Because his elderly grandmother was living with them, he spent the first six weeks of the school year joining my class from his bedroom.  At that time, he was the only one virtual in that particular period, so I could see him full screen.  Every time I looked at the screen, he was wearing a different hat.  He switched from sombrero to cowboy hat to propeller beanie as though it were totally normal.  At one point, I looked up to see that he had a yellow duck perched on top of his head.  Since I was the only one who could see him, this wasn't a show he was putting on for friends or an attempt to be disruptive.  It was purely for my entertainment and his.  He says he doesn't remember this, but I do. In a very stressful time, it was a lovely moment of joy.

Marley -  I heard so much during the pandemic about how masks prevented people from telling if you were smiling.  Marley proved this not to be true.  I'll set aside the fact that anyone who smiles only with their mouths is a psychopath (Try it; it's pretty much impossible). Being back in person outweighed any effect not seeing the lower part of the face had.  Kids communicate a lot of information in a number of subtle ways, and that had been lost during the virtual spring.  Online, I wasn't getting much nonverbal communication at all; in person, I was seeing body language and hearing sounds of confusion or affirmation.  Marley, in particular, smiled with every part of her being.  Her eyes sparkle; her voice is bright and genuine; her body language is open.  She gave this joy to everyone during the pandemic, and she has continued to do so in the four years since.  

Emily - Emily is an artist, and that's how she processes the world around her.  She draws pictures -  pictures of her pets, pictures of her thoughts, pictures of whatever she's looking at - she fills her sketchbook with lots and lots of pictures.  During the stress of the pandemic, she became a giver of  pictures.  I had a stuffed toy lemur named Gus in my classroom, and she drew a picture of him during class one day to gave to me after class.  One morning, as she was coming into the building, she asked me what my favorite animal was.  When she came to class that afternoon, she gave me a drawing of a panda sleeping on a tree branch.  It was stress relief for us both, and I still have those drawings at home.

Haolin - If you are a person who nods along during a presentation, class, or sermon, God bless you.  When presenting, it can be hard to know whether what I am saying is landing with listeners, and getting that bit of attentive feedback is useful.  Haolin is the world champion of nodding along.  He sat in the back of my classroom, in my right peripheral vision, nodding and saying, "Yeah, yeah.  Mmm hmm."  That little bit of affirmation was so encouraging, and while I have thanked him for it, I don't think he'll ever understand its true value for me.

Kate - The quote at the top of this post from Kate's salutatory address stood out because of what Kate's questions meant to me during the hybrid year.  She was in my 6th period class.  By that point in each day, teachers were exhausted - not just tired, but depleted of energy.  Yet, Kate continued to be curious.  She asked interesting questions.  She truly wanted to learn more about whatever topic we were covering and had questions about how it applied to things she saw in life. Each day, she reminded me that I was still teaching - not just surviving the year (or the day) but actually teaching students who wanted to learn.  I could never thank her enough for that, and I hope she continues to view learning that way throughout her life.

Class of 2025, I can only imagine what it would have been like if I had been teaching a different set of 8th graders during the most difficult year of all of our lives.  As hard as it was, your spirit made it worth every exhausting minute.  

Thank you.

Wait Time - The Secret Sauce of Thinking

My first observation as a teacher was done by my university advisor.  She had a lot of good thoughts and constructive criticism, but the best was about wait time.  Professor Klehm said, "You are not waiting long enough after you ask a question.  Count to three before you start looking for hands." 

Observers and feedback givers, take note.  This is the kind of effective, practical, simple, and usable advice every first year teacher needs.  And the longer I taught, the more I recognized how right she was.  In fact, she probably should have told me to count to a higher number.  

Increasing wait time would improve all of our classrooms because wait time is think time.  

Imagine. You are sitting in a class or a meeting.  The leader asks a question.  Your ears hear it, but it takes a moment for it to be really heard by your brain.  Then, unless it is a question you get asked frequently and have a memorized response for, it takes a little time to consider what the answer might be.  How long do you think that process might take?  What if the meeting leader expected an answer from you in less than a second?  Or less than half of a second?  Stressful, right!?!

Well, here's the bad news.  

In data compiled from thousands of teacher observations, the average wait time between a K-12 teacher asking a question and then expecting students to answer, has been calculated to be 0.7s.  If that's the average, that means some teachers are waiting for less than half a second before expecting kids to have an answer.  Some were as low as 0.2 seconds!  Just for context, it took 0.155s for Usain Bolt to get out of the blocks after the starting gun was fired at the Rio Olympics.  So, some teachers are expecting Olympic sprinter thinking from middle schoolers.  

Then, they call on the first student to raise their hand, and thinking stops for the rest of the class.  The gap just keeps getting wider as the fastest thinker is the only one engaging in retrieval practice and those who need it most don't get the time to do it.

Why is this happening?  

Well, for one thing, many education preparation programs don't cover this type of practical classroom technique stuff.  There is a lot of high level philosophy talk about "your why." That's important, don't get me wrong, but how much time does it take you to find it?  There's a lot of Piaget and Maslow.  I guess, if that's your thing, there's nothing wrong with learning it, but I've never thought about either of those mend during an actual teaching day.  There's a lot of talk about "the direction education is heading" even though it never is because it keeps changing direction.  The stuff you need in the daily practice of education is given short time, if any at all.  I moved into a new school building with six science teachers, and not one of us had been taught how to store chemicals safely in the stock room, so you can be certain a small but practical and impactful detail, like wait time, wasn't ever mentioned.  So, teachers don't know.  That is one reason.

Another reason is a thing your brain does, known as "action bias."  If there is activity, your brain reasons that you must be making progress.  You have fallen victim to this if you have ever been sitting at a lengthy red light and made the decision to turn and take a much longer route to your destination rather than sit there for another 30 seconds.  Activity feels more productive, so when we are calling on students quickly, it feels like our classroom is more productive.

The "curse of expertise" may play a role here as well.  Since I know the material well, I could answer this question very quickly, so I assume my students can as well.  It's easy to forget that novices think differently than experts.  It will, of course, take more time for them to even understand the question than it will for a group of experts, much less the amount of time it takes to develop an answer.  That's at play with a lot of recent graduates (you just took a physics course way harder than the one you are teaching) and experienced teachers (your content is second nature to you at this point).  

For me, personally, it was discomfort with silence.  Most of us find more than a couple of seconds of silence awkward, especially when there are people looking at us.  So teachers tend to fill the silence with chatter.  Even when I was getting better with waiting for the kids answers, I was saying more stuff and filling their working memories.  I started keeping a water bottle on the cart next to me so I could take a drink while I was waiting for them to think because it was the only way to shut myself up.  Eventually, I learned to embrace the awkwardness, even taking pride in the fact that I could endure it longer than they could until someone finally answered.

The good news

That was the bad news.  The good news is that this extraordinarily easy to fix.  You literally just wait longer.  The advice given to me to count to three inside my head was good.  I would make it five, though, because most of us count faster than we think we do.  Grab a sip of water; tap five times on your leg, scan the room, whatever you need to do.  Let your students know that you aren't going to call on someone just because they are the first person to raise their hand and that you want them all to have a chance to process their thoughts; they get it and the slower processors appreciate it. 

What time is right?

What is the right amount of wait time?  There's not a clear answer on that.  It largely depends on the complexity of the question and the exposure your students have already had with the content.  If you have been sprinkling retrieval practice questions through out the chapter, and you are asking relatively simple questions on the day before the test, you will not need to wait as long as you would if you are asking a complex question on a new topic.  

What has been observed by researchers, if you want some guidance, is that in classrooms where 3-5 seconds wait time is practiced, there are more correct responses and more variety of responses.  The variety part interests me because some of those answers will be wrong (others will be a variation of right if the question is open), but they are answer that wouldn't even have been proposed with less than three seconds of wait time.  You can't fix misconceptions you don't know they have, so getting a wrong answer from a student is useful to you as a teacher because you have insight into their thinking. 

I don't want you to misread this as an endorsement of a glacial classroom pace. Brisk pacing is a good thing.  Too much idle time is how teachers lose control of their classrooms.  I am only address the time between questions and responses here, not the rest of your lesson.

I know we are at the end of the year here. You may only have a few days or a couple of weeks left, so you might just experiment with this while reviewing for exams.  But keep it in mind when the school year starts next year.  While you are going over your classroom procedures, explain that you value their thinking time and then practice waiting.  The benefits outweigh the awekwardness.

Teacher Appreciation Week

It has been almost one year since I stepped out of full time classroom teaching.  That's a hard thought for me because there have been times in my life when I thought of teacher as my identity (thankfully, God knocked that out of me about ten years ago, or I couldn't do what I'm doing now). But I still interact with my teachers as I sub and speak at education conference, not to mention most of my friends are teachers.  

So, this week, I want to give a big shout out to the people who persevere, pouring their hearts, minds, and energy into the work of training up the next generation.  Here goes:

---------------------

Teachers, your task is difficult.  It may, in fact, be impossible.  You walk into a classroom every day, expected to equip, challenge, and inspire every student, regardless of background, home support, past educational experience, or interest level in your subject.  You may or may not have the support of your administration when it comes to classroom disruptions.  You likely don’t have the budget you need to properly carry out the things you would like to do, so you employ your creative skills to work around lack of supplies. As with all of the other issues in our society, education has become polarized along political lines, and you are in the middle, just trying to do your job. 

And you do it. You do it well. You do it because you know kids need you to do it.

Every day, you equip your students with the information they need to be good decision-makers.  This

is no small task, especially in an ever changing technological, political, and social landscape.

You fight the people who say they never use algebra because you know that they use the thought

processes of algebra daily. You overcome the fact that someone's mom didn't like the Scarlet Letter

or thinks teaching poetry is dumb because you know that the analytical skills that accompany analysis

of complex texts are important for the developing mind. You insist on the proper ending to chemical

formulas because getting it right can literally be the difference between life and death. You make them

memorize even though it isn't fun because you know the act of memorizing strengthens their brains,

no matter what some TikTok influencer says.  The mere act of equipping them is Herculean, and

it is the most basic level of your job.  

American teachers, you are also meant to challenge students at all levels of the ability spectrum (I

understand this might be different in other places).  In the same classroom, you have a child with

profound learning disabilities and those with intelligence higher than your own and the full spectrum

of academic levels in between.  You have students who may have had a bad experience with science

or math in the past and enter your classroom skittish while others suggest lab experiments to you

because they spend their free time reading about them online.  You know differentiation isn't really

possible, but you try. You ask ALL of them to perform better than they believe they are able to at things

they don’t think they are good at.  You are supposed to be fun and joyful and engaging while you

demand more from a child than the child (and sometimes their parents) think you should be asking for

because you know meeting challenges is good for the soul.

The best of you inspire, asking your students to look beyond the grade, the curriculum, and the tests to

see what they can do with their education. You have a student who “doesn’t like art” on the first day

they enter your classroom who will tell stories someday about the teacher who made them care about

the what the Dada movement was trying to accomplish or have an emotional reaction in a museum. 

Some may go into medicine because you taught them anatomy, but most will simply be enriched by

having a better understanding of their own body.  You build up students into people with a broader

view of the world than they would have if you hadn’t been their teacher. 

And that is just the academic part of your job; I have not included all of the social counseling, emotional

baggage, and safety concerns you keep in balance.  You know which students shouldn’t be put in a group

together and who needs a friend to sit with at lunch.  You are the frontline of reporting abuse and the

shoulder to cry on for many students and colleagues.  You make hundreds of decisions per day, often

without time to reflect on them thoroughly. 

Now, you know why you are so tired on Friday afternoons.

This teacher appreciation week, I hope you got some of the love an gratitude you deserve.

Steplab Instructional Coaching Intensive - Raw Notes

  These will be raw notes taken in real time and undergoing very little editing.  They will be words from the speaker blended with my own thoughts as I process what is being said.  While I will try to note the difference, I can't promise that will always happen.  Don't hold a speaker responsible for anything I put here.  

Steplab is an international platform for professional development.  This is the first intensive in the United States.  

The goal for today is for every participant to leave more competent, confident, and motivated to be a high quality instructional coach.

Giving other adults feedback is awkward and must be learned.  

What is instructional coaching?  A cycle of observation and feedback

How does one start?

Connect and clarify conversation - Helps to build the coaching relationship and clarify the process, a foundation need to help the coached person feel comfortable and open.  Without a good foundation, things are unstable.  

• Connect:  Ask some questions that get deeper than the surface level (motivations, goals, strengths, hopes for the classroom).
• Clarify:  Explain the rationale and process, deal with questions and concerns of the coached individual (observations, scripting, rehearsals, video, feedback)
• Close: Model vulnerability as you talk through the relationship with the coached.  "We are going to figure some things out together.  I'm going to learn from you."

Science of Instructional coaching

Typical "after school PD" runs a wide spectrum of effectiveness.  Rarely, it might bring about immediate and sustained transformation. Often, it is interesting but doesn't effective immediate change.  Most of the time, teachers are thinking about what else they could be doing with that time.

There is no correlation between years on the job and expertise, but there is correlation between effective professional development over time and expertise.

People who are satisfied with their jobs feel three things on a regular basis - Mastery, Autonomy, and Purpose. - Drive by Daniel Pink. Helping teachers learn how to do their jobs better will build all three of these.  

PD is often ineffective because:  Teaching is one of the most cognitively demanding jobs that exists, so trying to keep in mind something you want to improve on while doing it is insane.  We develop habits quickly as mental shortcuts, so breaking them is hard.  Whole group sessions have statistically insignificant impact.  Quality instructional coaching shows 2 months gain per year for the students of the teacher who was coached.  (A bad instructional coach is no better than a bad whole group PD.)

Effective PD must 

• Build knowledge (manage cognitive load, revisit prior learning)
• Motivate  staff (setting goals, info from credible source, provide affirmation and reinforcement)
• Develop teaching techniques (instruction social support, modeling, feedback, rehearsal)
• Embed practice (provide prompts and cues, action plans, encouragement and self monitoring, context specific repetition)

If any are missing, it will fall flat.

Three models of coaching were shown and critiqued.  

1.  Gather Evidence:  In the Gathering Evidence phase, you cannot say things like "you gave too many examples."  Give facts about what you observed and lead them to the conclusion themselves.  Notes should be what the teacher and the students are saying, doing, writing, or displaying (time stamps and head counts can be helpful).  Take pictures.

How do you know if a coachee is read to move on from a step?

The right effect is achieved 

• at the right moment for the right reason 
• with the criteria met 
• and has become habitual (at least partly)

If a coachee hasn't achieved their step:

• acknowledge progress and any parts of the criteria that were completed.
• highlight that "students need time to become accustomed to the routine.
• include a consolidating step as a sub-goal

2. Review Progress: Praise and Prompt:

• Praise needs to be specific to the thing they are working on, not generalized to the whole lesson.
• Prompt them to reflect on what success looks like.  It should be a moment of celebration.  Name what part was successful and say, "What do you think the impact was?"
• Quality praise is precise (praise one thing with evidence), linked to the prior step, and includes a prompt to reflect on their success (helps to build insight and form habits)

3. Diagnose

• Always keep the goal in mind and focus the coaching on that thing.  The step is secondary to the goal.
• Form multiple hypotheses about the learning problem.  Don't just coach your favorite technique.
• Search for pivotal evidence that will support your hypothesis and allow coachee to find the conclusion.
• Identify a teach goal to address one problem and suggest a step to help achieve the teach goal.
• Tackle in small steps.
• Pull it all together.

4. Agree on Step - This is the easiest step to do wrong.  And it is the part where the coached individual is most likely to get defensive.

• Decide together - Don't say, "the step I have chosen for you is . . ."  
  
• Ask questions like, "How successful do you think this was?"
• Offer evidence (picture of student behavior or work) if you need to.
• If the teacher is already self-aware, you may not need to provide more.  You can just agree with them.  It is only if the teacher needs leading that you need to give more.  Once agreement has been reached, move on; don't beat a dead horse.

Awareness (Tell me about... I noticed... ) + Agreed Insights (What impact did...?) + Step Plan ( How could we...?) = Successful Change

5.  Modeling - Showing the coachee an exemplar on either video or live yourself will help them to understand what you mean more than just explaining it to them will.

Four steps to effective modeling

Script it ahead of time.

Check against criteria - Are you helping them to implement the step without adding other things in?

Representation - Show a video or model it yourself.

Deconstruction - Explain what it means as you go.  Did you notice when she did this?  What impact did that have?  What did you notice?  Why do you think that happened?

6.  Planning and Rehearsal - Teaching looks easy, but it is so complex that some aspects need to be rehearsed in the same way all performance based professions rehearse.  It helps the teacher establish habits in cognitively non-demanding spaces before going into the messy world of the classroom.  This helps reduce demands on working memory.

• How can you implement this change into an upcoming lesson?
• Script it first.  What do you need to say and do?
• Let's improve the script.  It may take a few iterations to match the success criteria.
• Conduct multiple rounds of rehearsal.
• Feedback between rounds

Learning and the Brain Notes Spring 2025 - Sunday

 These will be raw notes taken in real time and undergoing very little editing.  They will be words from the speaker blended with my own thoughts as I process what is being said.  While I will try to note the difference, I can't promise that will always happen.  Don't hold a speaker responsible for anything I put here.  

Keynote Address I: Leading with Learning in Mind: Putting the "Education" in Educational Leadership by Jim Heal

(Personal Note: If you ever have a chance to hear Jim Heal, take advantage of it.  He is delightful.  This is the 3rd time I've gotten to hear him since November, and I couldn't be happier about it.)

Evolving Role of Leaders in Education

• What have we expected teachers to know and be able to do over time?
• 150 years ago, we expected them to know content and pedagogy.  50 years ago, we expected them to have pedagogy and behavior management. Then we started expecting tech, social emotional and became too interested in what Finland is doing.  (Personal note: In the 25 years I have taught, I have seen culture shift to making teachers simultaneously the source of and solution to all of society's ills, but the preparation for teachers in college is still about pedagogy.)
• Very few of the standards for teachers are related to the science of learning.  We are teaching the donut, but the science of learning is the hole.  We need to put the donut hole back into the donut.
• Do we have a mental model of what effective instruction looks like?
• How many of your daily activities are administrative vs. educational?
• Why does it matter that educational leaders ground their decisions in an understanding of how learning happens?  The way we frame a problem shapes the way we address it.
• Why do we used standardized tests? Administrative framing says it allows us to work ithing the system to get students into top colleges.  Educative framing says it helps us ot align learning goals and instruction to better support student learning.  
• If you get the educative framing right, you'll automatically get the administrative outcomes.

What Do We Mean by the Science of Learning?

• A set of principles representing out best understanding of how people learn.
• Backed by evidence
• Applicable to instructional context.
• There is a pendulum swing between overcomplicating or oversimplifying pedagogy in relation to the evidence.  Overcomplicating leads to collapse under the weight of the details.  Oversimplifying leads to no one really knowing if they are applying evidence based practices because everyone thinks they are.

How do we Manage Cognitive Load?

• We can't learn what we don't attend to.
• Our long term memory is infinite, but our working memory is limited. We have an almost unlimited ability to store things but a limited ability to put it into storage.  (Personal note:  I think this is a feature not a bug.  We are designed with a slow down mechanism to prevent us from trying to do everything everywhere all at once.)
• Thought experiment:  Try to mentally alphabetize the days of the week (difficult but doable).  Try to do it with months of the year (overloads your working memory).
• Discovery learning massively overloads students' working memory.  They cannot hold that much new information in mind and work with it at the same time. 
• We have thrown massive amounts of money at discovery learning without positive results.
• Applying the principles of cognitive science allows for gradual and strategic introduction of new practices that will be effective without taxing teacher's cognitive load.

How Do We Activate Prior Knowledge?

• The best way to manage load is to build their schema on content over time.
• Having content knowledge is required for reading comprehension.  You cannot give an American child a story about cricket and expect them to remember much.  It's not because they have poor reading skills or comprehension skills.  It's because they don't know anything about the passage they are reading.  
• Without prior knowledge we are presenting students with a redacted view of the content.
• New knowledge needs a place to live within the prior knowledge.  As the puzzle evolves, you are able to see a rich picture and find the beauty in what you are learning.  
• As you become more expert at something, everything you learn comes in not only in isolation but in connection with other things you know that are related, it connects ideas and allows innovation.
• Hansel and Gretel example - solving a riddle in which a path must be marked is easier to figure out if your grow up with this fairy tale than it is if you didn’t.  
• Activate what is relevant and accurate.  Make schema explicit by giving them an opportunity to show what sense they are making of the content. Meet learners where they are.

Implications for Teachers and Leaders

• Knowing how to teach by understanding how students learn is a matter of instructional equity.
• Context matters.  Just because something worked in another school doesn't mean it will work in yours.
• We can't assume what other people (students, colleagues, administrators) know and don't know.
• Make everything you do explicit.

Keynote Address II: Powerful Teaching: Practical Tips to Unleash Learning in Your Classroom by Pooja Agarwal

(Personal Note:  Pooja is another one of those names that is met with awe by people in the evidence based education world.  She was presenting a session at the 2018 conference, but that was back before I knew who she was, so I didn't see her that time.  I'm so glad to get to rectify that today.)

retrievalpractice.org/latb 

She invited us not to take notes, but I take them for you to get them, so I'm disobeying right now.

Cramming "works" if all you care about is the test itself.  It doesn't result in long term learning. You forget all of it because it is all input and no retrieval.

Encoding:  Getting the information into our heads happens in a lot of ways.  We typically focus on that, and it matters.  We obviously need to do it, but . . . 

We need to spend more time getting information out of our students heads because that is how we remember it.  If we only encode, they forget.  If we encode and then give opportunities to retrieve, we get better encoding.

Four minute brain dump (Personal note:  My students thought this was a gross way to put it, so we called it "Brain Bomb" in my class. I used this in my study skills class frequently.  Students hated doing it, but it does work.). I like the four minute timer.  Putting here so I can find it again.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lEs2zUCrALI 

Forgetting is completely normal.  If we didn't forget things, there would be too much in our minds.  Forgetting is important for learning because it helps us prune what we need from what we don't.  Pruning a plant helps them grow, not just more, but better.

We have focused a lot on what you should know and do.  Let's talk about what you already know and do.

You already review.  Tweak it to retrieve.  

• Instead of saying "this is what we did yesterday," ask them, "What did we do yesterday?" 
• It doesn't have to be a full brain dump; you can ask them to retrieve two things.  
• Entrance tickets or exit tickets
• What did you learn yesterday?
• Tweak Think Pair Share to put more time on Think.  Maybe, even change it to Write Pair Share

You know your content best.  Apply your judgment to applying strategies to your content area.  A brain dump might not work well for AP Calculus, but another technique might.

You don't have to take up more prep time or class time.  You can adjust things you are already doing to make them more retrieval based.  You aren't meant to grade it because it is not assessment.  Doing it with paper and pencil gets around the AI issues.

An AI can't really answer these prompts:

What would you like to remember about this topic, and why is it important to you? 

What is what one thing I didn't ask you about that you learned

What is a Question you have about this topic that you would like to discuss during class?

Blocking and Interleaving

Blocking is easier to implement, but interleaving results in more learning.  Students don't love it because it is harder.

• Mix up similar concepts
• Mix up the order of steps
• Shuffle flashcards
• Start with questions about the middle of the story.

retrievalpratice.org/scientists for contacts

Session: Understanding the Teen Brain: Multitasking, Memory, Sleep, and Motivation by Bradley Busch

(Personal Note:  Bradley Busch twice in one weekend?!?!  How is this my life?)

There is so much amazing research out there, but teachers have a hard time accessing it because of paywalls and jargon.  Inner Drive exists to bridge that gap.

Why do teenage brains seems so mysterious to us.  Whey do the decisions they make seems so crazy to us.

Impulse Control - the ability to delay gratification

Sensation Seeking - the desire to experience things RIGHT NOW

The reason teaching is so hard is that the gap between those things doesn't start to close until after high school.  When a student comes back to visit, and you think "Wow, you seem like a different person," it's because they literally are.

Multi-tasking:  

Your brain is terrible at multi-tasking.  What you are actually doing is task switching, which takes time, effort, and energy, resulting in reduced performance.  Fact:  You cannot conscious action two things at once.  People who have had access to phones since birth have tricked themselves into believing that it enables them to multitask.  If accuracy matters, do on thing first; finish it; then do another. The detrimental impact of phones on learning in schools is dramatic.  

Perham and Currie (2014) Students believe music will help them study, but the research does not back them up.  The study compared students who studied in silence, students who listened to music of their choice, students who listened to music they didn't like, and students who listened to music with no lyrics (heavy metal instrumental).

All sound interferes, lyrics interfere the most. (Exception: For students with ADHD, white noise can be beneficial.)

Emotions and Stress:

The teenage brain isn't great at recognizing emotions.  Giving them "the look" might not be effective for that reason.  

We sometimes identify sticks and hoses as a snake because we are always on the lookout for threats.  Negativity gave us a better chance of survival, but we developed a "better safe than sorry" glitch.  Students catastrophize just before exams because their brains are wired to protect themselves with negative thinking.

Peer Pressure and Decision Making:  Students and adults were put in a pych lab and played a car driving video game.  In the game, they encounter traffic lights.  You might get a better score for faster time or you might get crashed into.  When adults are alone, they take slightly fewer risks than if they are with others.  Teenagers, on their own, make the same number of risky decisions as adults on their own.  In the company of other teenagers, they made almost twice as many risky decisions.  Teenagers have a different calculation of risk.  The risk of smoking is lung cancer, but teenagers might view the risk of not smoking (social isolation) to be a bigger risk.

The Bandwagon Effect:  Let's just go with the group because they have probably made a good decision.  it's easier to go with the flow, and also, from an evolutionary standpoint, separating yourself from the group has been historically dangerous. 

People will conform to social norms whether it makes sense or not. (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X6kWygqR0L8).  Don't send messages that say a lot of people are doing something wrong because it makes people feel more permitted to do it even when you are trying to prevent it.  Don't publicly criticize bad behavior; publicly praise good behavior. (98% of people obey the speed limit.  75% of people re-use your towel. 18 of you are following instructions. Thank you to the 20 of you who turned the paper in on time.)

Studying

Future deadlines or test dates are so far in the future that the teenage brain views it as a fictional foreign land there is no point in even thinking about.  (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4P785j15Tzk). 

The planning fallacy - we are bad at estimating how long something will take to complete, so we start it too late.

Dumlosky et al (2013) - The most common ways students tend to study (re-read), quizzing, highlighting, and doing a little frequent studying - Re-reading and highlighting were the least effective by a mile.  Retrieval and spacing are the most effective.  Students are unlikely to do spacing when they don't have much time, and because they are bad at estimating how long it takes, they are always short on time. 

They don't need to do more work; they just need to start it earlier.

Sleep

The average teenager gets about 6 hours of sleep per night. When asked how much sleep they think they need, they say 8 hours, but the reality is they need is about 9 and a half hours.  They operate on about a thousand hours of sleep deficit per year, which impacts their learning.  They also become sleepy at different times than adults do because of melatonin rhythm differences.  Adults at about 9PM, teens at about 11PM.

REM sleep, which refreshes your brain, happens between the 7th and 9th hour of sleep. Students who get seven hours may be physically fine, but they will have less optimal brain performance.  They are 40% less efficient at learning and recalling.  All nighters are detrimental. Any benefit you may get from the extra study is cancelled out by the reduced performance. (van der Helm and Walker (2009)

Final Keynote: How Learning Works: How Schools Should Work by John Almarode

(Personal Note: I first met John at the 2019 Learning and the Brain conference. I came home, found him on Twitter, and badgered him into being friends with me.  He is one of the people who has helped me most in the efforts I am making now, and I am grateful to call him my friend.  There could be no better way to end this conference than by having John wrap everything up.  There will be few notes here as I will likely just be absorbed in the presentation.)

In a study of many types of learning strategies, no matter where students started, their rate of growth was suprisingly consistent.  (In other words, not only do we all learn in remarkably similar ways (not uniquely or in learning styles), but we all seem to learn at the same rate.  There are no fast and slow learners.  

What matters is the amount of opportunities we give students to learn.

Research tells us the potential of a particular influence to impact student learning.  It is also context dependent, so the impact depends on implementation.  

• We should strive to build learners who know what to do when they don't know what to do and we aren't their teacher anymore. What does it mean to be a learner in your classroom? Does your practice match your answer to that question? Are you doing the things that promote what you say you value?  Intentional design of the learning experience has a 0.95 effect size.  The amount adults talk WITH children correlates with their linguistic, cognitive and academic abilities. Do we give them appropriate productive struggle.  Seeking help from peers has an effect size of 0.68!
• Know Your Impact - How do you know what you are doing is effective?  Your pedagogy must be evidence based (visible), not faith based (meaning you just hope it works). You have to check for understanding.  (A chef has to taste the soup frequently during the cooking process long before it goes out to the customer.). The very act of taking a formative assessment is beneficial if students have to select, organize, and integrate new learning.  
• Climate first, Learning second, Achievement third The actions you take send a message.  Be careful to send the message you intend to.  Solving one problem might create a climate issue if you aren't careful about how it is done. Is there a shared understanding aout what makes a good teacher?  Is there a high degree of relational trust amongst staff? Are teachers prepared to take risks and ask for help? Are decisions evidence based and research informed? Do teachers use data to paln learning experiences and next steps?
• Collective Responsibility Positive interdependence (If you don't succeed, we don't succeed.  If I don't succeed, we don't succeed), cultural inclusiveness, collective responsibility (a shared commitment ot each student's success, not just the ones on your roster) has an effect size of 1.01.  That's massive! We are such social beings that we had better make it part of the culture of our schools.